DATE: April 10, 2025 at 12:12PM
SOURCE: PSYPOST.ORG

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TITLE: Researchers pinpoint three distinct types of reactions to breakups

URL: https://www.psypost.org/researchers-pinpoint-three-distinct-types-of-reactions-to-breakups/

When faced with an unwanted breakup, most people respond with sadness, curiosity about the reasons, or attempts to move forward, according to new research published in Evolutionary Psychology.

Romantic relationships form a cornerstone of human experience, yet they often end—sometimes unexpectedly. Through the lens of evolutionary theory, researchers suggest that when one partner terminates a relationship the other hoped to maintain, the rejected partner experiences a “fitness cost.” This triggers emotional mechanisms that evolved to either salvage the relationship or prevent similar losses in the future.

Despite extensive research on rejection, scientists have lacked a comprehensive map of how people react when desirable relationships end. In a new study, Menelaos Apostolou and colleagues employed a mixed-methods approach to identify and categorize the full spectrum of emotional and behavioral responses to being left by a romantic partner.

The researchers conducted their investigation in two phases. First, they recruited 219 Greek-speaking adults online who responded to an open-ended question about how they would react if a partner ended a relationship they wanted to continue. After excluding participants without relationship experience, trained research assistants analyzed the responses and identified 79 distinct potential reactions.

In the second phase, a separate group of 442 Greek-speaking participants rated how likely they would be to engage in each of these 79 reactions using a 5-point scale. The researchers then used factor analysis to organize these reactions into broader categories and examined how demographic variables influenced response patterns.

Their analysis revealed 13 major reaction types, including trying to change the partner’s mind, cutting all contact, acceptance, feeling depressed or sad, becoming aggressive, distracting oneself, revenge sex, asking why, seeking psychological help, becoming angry, threatening suicide, and spying on the partner. The most common anticipated reactions were feeling sad (92%), seeking explanations (85%), and attempting distraction (81%). More extreme responses like threatening suicide (2%) or becoming physically aggressive (4%) were rare.

Further analysis grouped these 13 categories into three overarching domains. “Accept and forget” emerged as the most commonly endorsed domain, encompassing strategies like severing contact or immersing oneself in work or hobbies. The “Sadness and depression” domain ranked second, including crying, feeling insecure, and seeking therapy. While least common, the “Physical and psychological aggression” domain still appeared in responses, covering reactions like anger, revenge sex, and self-harm threats.

The researchers found minimal gender differences, with men more likely than women to report they would seek revenge sex. Age played a more significant role—older participants tended toward acceptance, while younger ones more frequently anticipated trying to change their ex-partner’s mind or feelings of depression. Current relationship status did not significantly influence reported reactions.

Of note is that this sample consisted exclusively of Greek-speaking participants recruited through non-random methods, potentially limiting generalizability. Additionally, the study relied on hypothetical scenarios rather than documented experiences of actual breakups, which might create discrepancies between anticipated and actual behaviors.

The research, “How People React to the Termination of an Intimate Relationship: An Exploratory Mixed-Methods Study,” was authored by Menelaos Apostolou, Isaias Taliadoros, and Timo Juhani Lajunen.

URL: https://www.psypost.org/researchers-pinpoint-three-distinct-types-of-reactions-to-breakups/

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DATE: April 10, 2025 at 10:00AM
SOURCE: PSYPOST.ORG

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TITLE: People with ADHD symptoms report more involuntary memories in daily life

URL: https://www.psypost.org/people-with-adhd-symptoms-report-more-involuntary-memories-in-daily-life/

A new study published in the British Journal of Psychology has found that individuals who report symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder tend to experience more involuntary memories in everyday life than those without such symptoms. These spontaneous recollections were also rated as less positive and more repetitive.

The researchers set out to explore whether spontaneous remembering—unintended recollections of personal experiences—might be more frequent among people with ADHD traits. While past research has established a connection between ADHD and increased mind wandering, it was unclear whether this tendency also extended to involuntary memories.

Earlier studies had produced mixed results. Some naturalistic studies hinted at a link between distractibility and spontaneous remembering, while others using laboratory-based measures found no such association. The authors of the current study suspected that traditional lab tasks might fail to detect real-life differences and designed two complementary studies to investigate.

In the first study, 453 undergraduate participants completed the Barkley Adult ADHD Rating Scale (BAARS-IV), a validated questionnaire used to identify symptoms of ADHD. Based on their scores, participants were grouped into those who scored within the ADHD range and those who did not. All participants then took part in a vigilance task, which was designed to measure spontaneous thoughts and memories in a controlled setting.

During this task, participants viewed a sequence of slides and were asked to report any unplanned memories or thoughts they experienced. After the task, they completed a separate questionnaire asking them to estimate how often they experienced involuntary memories in their daily lives, how emotionally positive or negative these memories tended to be, and how often the same memories repeated.

The results of this first study showed no difference in the number of spontaneous memories reported during the laboratory task between those with ADHD symptoms and those without. However, the questionnaire responses painted a different picture. Participants who scored in the ADHD range estimated that they experienced significantly more involuntary memories in their daily lives compared to the other groups. They also described these memories as being less positive and more repetitive. These findings suggest that while laboratory settings may not always detect variations in spontaneous memory experiences, self-reported everyday experiences can reveal meaningful differences.

To build on these findings, the researchers conducted a second study using a more naturalistic method. A new sample of 116 participants, including both students and community members, also completed the BAARS-IV. They were then asked to carry a pocket-sized diary for 48 hours and record every involuntary memory they experienced during that time. For each memory, they noted the time, their age in the memory, and rated its emotional tone, emotional impact, how often the memory had occurred before, and how focused their attention was at the time.

This diary-based study provided additional support for the researchers’ expectations. Participants with ADHD-range scores recorded significantly more involuntary memories over the 48-hour period than those in the non-ADHD range. On average, they reported nearly twice as many memories. As in the first study, they also rated their memories as less emotionally positive. However, unlike the questionnaire results, there were no significant group differences in how repetitive the memories were or in attention levels reported at the time the memories occurred.

Together, these findings indicate that people with ADHD symptoms may experience more frequent spontaneous memories than others, particularly in their day-to-day lives. The difference was not apparent during a controlled laboratory task, which the researchers believe may not reflect real-world attention dynamics. In fact, they propose that the vigilance task, which includes meaningful word phrases, may actually help participants with ADHD maintain their focus, suppressing spontaneous memories that would otherwise occur in less structured settings. Alternatively, the task may have artificially elevated the rate of spontaneous memories in non-ADHD participants, masking any differences between groups.

The diary method, in contrast, offered a more natural glimpse into how often these memories arise in ordinary circumstances. Since participants were recording experiences in real time as they went about their daily lives, this method may better reflect genuine cognitive differences between people with and without ADHD symptoms.

The researchers acknowledged several limitations in their work. First, the participants were not formally diagnosed with ADHD, but rather scored in the ADHD range on a self-report scale. While this method is commonly used in psychological research, future studies with clinically diagnosed samples would help confirm the findings.

The study also relied on self-report measures, which can be vulnerable to inaccuracies. For instance, people with ADHD may over- or underestimate how often they experience repetitive memories. Although the diary method helps address some of these concerns, it too has limitations. Participants may have forgotten to record some memories, especially if they occurred frequently, which could lead to underreporting.

Despite these challenges, the study adds to a growing body of evidence suggesting that people with ADHD symptoms tend to experience more spontaneous cognitive events, including not only future-oriented mind wandering but also unintentional recollections of past experiences. These findings could help researchers better understand how attention and memory interact in people with attentional difficulties.

The authors suggest that future research could use longer diary recording periods to capture patterns that might not appear over just two days. They also recommend further investigation into why these differences arise. While one theory holds that people with ADHD have weaker mechanisms for filtering out irrelevant memories, the evidence for this remains inconclusive. More research is needed to clarify what drives these differences in spontaneous remembering and how they affect daily functioning.

The study, “Involuntary remembering and ADHD: Do individuals with ADHD symptoms experience high volumes of involuntary memories in everyday life?“, was authored by John H. Mace, Assegedetch HaileMariam, Jian Zhu, and Natalie Howell

URL: https://www.psypost.org/people-with-adhd-symptoms-report-more-involuntary-memories-in-daily-life/

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DATE: April 10, 2025 at 09:00AM
SOURCE: PSYPOST.ORG

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TITLE: Music therapy might improve quality of life and emotion regulation in depressed women

URL: https://www.psypost.org/music-therapy-might-improve-quality-of-life-and-emotion-regulation-in-depressed-women/

An experiment involving women with major depressive disorder found improvements in their quality of life, emotion regulation strategies, and everyday depression symptoms following group music therapy. However, there were no effects on depression symptoms as measured by self-report assessments or observer ratings. The research was published in the Journal of Affective Disorders.

Music therapy is a therapeutic approach that uses music to address the physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs of individuals. It offers a creative outlet for expression and emotional release. This type of therapy is used to treat a broad range of conditions, including emotional and mental health issues, developmental and learning disabilities, neurological conditions, chronic illnesses, and more. It is also used in elder care, with individuals suffering from dementia, and in palliative care settings.

In music therapy, participants engage in music-based activities such as singing, playing instruments, or moving to music within a therapeutic setting guided by a trained music therapist. Sessions can be conducted individually—tailored to the specific goals and needs of one person—or in a group setting. Group therapy offers a sense of community and support, allowing individuals to feel less isolated. By creating or listening to music together, participants can explore their emotions in a safe environment, which may lead to improved mood and reduced anxiety.

Study author Christine Gaebel and her colleagues sought to evaluate the effectiveness of group music therapy in treating women with major depressive disorder. They hypothesized that group music therapy would not only reduce depressive symptoms but also improve quality of life and mood regulation through music.

They conducted an experiment involving 102 women between the ages of 18 and 65 who were diagnosed with major depressive disorder but had no other severe mental disorders or physical illnesses. Participants were randomly assigned to six treatment groups consisting of 16–18 women each. Fifty-two were assigned to the intervention group (i.e., they received group music therapy), while fifty were placed in a waitlist control group (i.e., they received no treatment during the study but were scheduled to receive it afterward).

Each participant first underwent a 60-minute individual session consisting of an interview, followed by ten weekly 120-minute group music therapy sessions. Each session included welcome music at the beginning and a closing musical reflection at the end. In the main portion of the session, participants were invited to raise personal issues or concerns, which were then addressed through music therapy interventions guided by the therapist.

These interventions included, for example, free musical improvisation, relaxation techniques, and guided imagery accompanied by music. “The selection of the appropriate interventions was based on therapists’ assessments of patient needs and group dynamics. Even if only a single patient raised a concern, the entire group participated in the intervention, which is not a disadvantage, as there is a significant overlap in patient concerns due to the nature of the disorder,” the authors explained.

Participants completed assessments at three time points: before the intervention, immediately after the intervention, and 10 weeks following the intervention. Depression symptoms were evaluated using three different tools: an observer-rated assessment (the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale), a self-report questionnaire (BDI-II), and a momentary assessment of depression symptoms in daily life using a visual analog scale. Participants also completed assessments of emotion regulation (the Heidelberg Form for Emotion Regulation Strategies and the Brief Music in Mood Regulation Scale) and quality of life (the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire).

The results showed that group music therapy did not significantly improve self-rated or observer-rated depression symptoms. However, participants did show improvement in depression symptoms as measured in everyday life. Additionally, emotion regulation strategies and quality of life improved. These effects were more pronounced immediately after the intervention than at the 10-week follow-up.

life using a visual analog scale. Participants also completed assessments of emotion regulation (the Heidelberg Form for Emotion Regulation Strategies and the Brief Music in Mood Regulation Scale) and quality of life (the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire).

The results showed that group music therapy did not result in improvements in self-rated or observer-rated depression symptoms. However, the assessment of depression symptoms in everyday life did improve. Participants’ mood regulation strategies and quality of life improved as well. The effects were larger when comparing the time before the intervention to time immediately after the intervention than when looking at the 10-week follow-up (10 weeks after the end of the intervention).

“GMT [group music therapy] is an economical approach to treat MDD [major depressive disorder], yielding health-promoting effects regarding DS [depression symptoms], emotion regulation, and QoL [quality of life]. Manualization [creating a therapy manual and codifying the procedures of the therapy] and further evaluation of MT [music therapy] is strongly recommended,” the study authors concluded.

The study sheds light on the potentials of music therapy for treating depression. However, it should be noted that the study only involved women. Effects on men might not be identical. Additionally, only one of the three measures of depression showed improvements after the therapy, so it remains unclear how effective the examined treatment really is on depressive symptoms.

The paper, “Effects of group music therapy on depressive symptoms in women – The MUSED-study: Results from a randomized-controlled trial,” was authored by Christine Gaebel, Martin Stoffel, Corina Aguilar-Raab, Marc N. Jarczok, Sabine Rittner, Beate Ditzen, and Marco Warth.

URL: https://www.psypost.org/music-therapy-might-improve-quality-of-life-and-emotion-regulation-in-depressed-women/

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TRIGGER WARNING: Military Psychology

DATE: April 10, 2025 at 08:26AM
SOURCE: THE CENTER FOR DEPLOYMENT PSYCHOLOGY

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DATE: April 10, 2025 at 07:00AM
SOURCE: PSYPOST.ORG

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TITLE: You’re more welcome than you think: The psychology of self-inviting to social plans

URL: https://www.psypost.org/youre-more-welcome-than-you-think-the-psychology-of-self-inviting-to-social-plans/

A recent study published in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin sheds light on a common but often misunderstood social scenario: the hesitation many people feel when considering whether to ask to join the plans of others. Across eight studies, researchers found that people frequently underestimate how welcome their self-invitations would be. As a result, they miss out on social opportunities that the original planners would have happily included them in.

The research was inspired by a simple question: Why do people hesitate to ask if they can tag along when friends mention plans? For example, when someone casually brings up going to a festival or a movie, their friend may want to join but hold back, unsure whether they’d be seen as intrusive. Lead author Julian Givi, an associate professor at West Virginia University’s John Chambers College of Business and Economics, became interested in the topic after working on a related study about how people feel when their invitations are declined. That earlier project sparked curiosity about the flip side—what happens when someone wants to join plans but hesitates to ask.

The idea of self-inviting—when someone asks to join plans rather than being directly invited—is widely understood in everyday life, but it had received little scientific attention. Givi and his colleagues set out to explore whether people are as likely to ask to join others as those with the plans would actually want. They also wanted to understand the thought processes that drive both groups’ behavior.

To explore this, the researchers conducted eight separate studies involving thousands of participants. These included both real-life recollection studies and hypothetical scenario-based experiments. In the first study, 340 participants recalled situations from the past five years where they either self-invited or were asked by someone else to join a social activity. These events ranged from casual outings to everyday plans like going to a park or attending a museum. Participants described how they felt during the interaction, and researchers used text analysis software to measure the emotional tone of their responses.

Later studies used structured scenarios to isolate specific psychological factors. Participants were randomly assigned roles as either “potential self-inviters” (those considering asking to join plans) or “plan-holders” (those already making plans). They were asked to imagine situations where a mutual friend had plans and to report either how likely they would be to ask to join or how they would feel if someone else asked to join them. The researchers measured both behavioral intentions and emotional responses, such as how irritated or annoyed the participants believed others would be by a self-invitation.

The findings were consistent across studies. In nearly every case, people imagining themselves as potential self-inviters were less likely to ask to join than plan-holders said they would prefer. For instance, in one study, only 59% of self-inviters said they would ask to join plans, while 92% of plan-holders said they would have liked to be asked. This pattern held even when the plan-holders had previously invited the self-inviter in the past or when logistical issues were minimized.

“The effect sizes were quite large,” Givi told PsyPost. “In other words, self-inviters and plan-holders really disagreed.”

Why do people hold back from asking to join? The research pointed to two major factors. First, potential self-inviters overestimated how annoyed plan-holders would be by the request. Second, they wrongly believed that the plan-holders had likely thought about inviting them and then decided not to, which felt like a form of social rejection. In reality, the people making plans often hadn’t thought about inviting others at all. Their decisions were based more on logistics or timing than on exclusion.

This mistaken belief—the idea that others intentionally left them out—fed into people’s reluctance to self-invite. The researchers connected this to broader psychological tendencies, such as egocentrism and sensitivity to rejection. People often overestimate how much others think about them, which can lead them to imagine slights that weren’t intended. That kind of misperception makes a simple ask feel emotionally risky, even when it’s not.

Additional experiments confirmed that this sequence of thoughts—believing one was deliberately excluded and expecting irritation from others—was a key reason people chose not to self-invite. In fact, mediation analyses showed that these beliefs helped explain why self-inviters acted more cautiously than plan-holders would have liked.

Interestingly, the mismatch disappeared in situations where the self-inviter had already received a previous invitation but had initially declined. In these cases, both parties had shared knowledge that an invitation had been considered and extended. Without the uncertainty of being “deliberately” left out, self-inviters were more likely to ask again to join if their plans changed.

“We demonstrate that potential self-inviters fail to ask to join the plans of others as often as plan-holders would prefer, because potential self-inviters overestimate how irritated plan-holders would be by such self-invitations,” Givi explained. “Further, we show that these asymmetries are rooted in differing viewpoints about the mindsets of plan-holders when they originally made the plans. Namely, potential self-inviters exaggerate the likelihood that plan-holders had already considered inviting them but decided against it (vs. made plans without considering inviting them).”

“The make takeaway is that we as a general public should give more consideration to the prospect of asking to join the plans of others. Of course, we shouldn’t self-invite in any context, but in many, it does not hurt to ask.”

However, Givi also cautioned that “you wouldn’t want to self-invite to anything that involves a formal invitation (e.g., a wedding). In these cases, the people with the plans have already given lots of consideration to who they want to invite—and who they didn’t want to invite.”

As with all research, there are a few limitations to consider. Many of the studies relied on hypothetical scenarios or recollections of past events, which can be affected by memory biases. Though the researchers attempted to account for this with varied methodologies, future work could benefit from real-time observation or diary studies tracking social behavior as it happens. Also, while their scenarios focused on casual, everyday plans between friends, it’s possible that the findings would differ for more formal events or in relationships with less emotional closeness.

Further research could also explore cultural and personality influences on self-inviting. Do some cultures normalize asking to join plans more than others? Are extroverted people less concerned about being seen as intrusive? And how do self-inviters handle being turned down? These are questions the authors suggest for future study.

“The invitation psychology research area is brand new,” Givi said. “I want to keep exploring all aspects of it.”

The study, “Self-Invitation Hesitation: How and Why People Fail to Ask to Join the Plans of Others,” was authored by Julian Givi, Daniel M. Grossman, Colleen P. Kirk, and Constantine Sedikides.

URL: https://www.psypost.org/youre-more-welcome-than-you-think-the-psychology-of-self-inviting-to-social-plans/

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